For most students, applying to graduate or business school means taking a computer-based standardized test.
But if you're sightless, you can't take a standardized test on the computer independently without the aid of a human reader.
For these students, taking a standardized test with the aid of technology such as screen-reading software or a Braille display is not currently an option.
Instead, most blind students opt to take the tests in alternative formats, such as Braille or large print.
"We don't really have an option right now," said April Shinholster, president of the National Alliance of Blind Students. "We really see this as a problem."
The Educational Testing Service (ETS) has increasingly phased out paper-and-pencil exams for computerized testing. The Graduate Record Exam (GRE), Graduate Management Admission Test and the Test of English as a Foreign Language (TOEFL) are all available on the computer.
Computerized testing could potentially provide more equitable opportunities for students with disabilities. For example, a student who might not otherwise be able to take conventional pencil-and-paper exams could take a test on the computer using synthetic speech.
"Computers have allowed people with disabilities who may be reliant on others to achieve a level of independence that might not otherwise be possible," said Dr. Eric Hansen, development scientist at the Division of Cognitive and Instructional Sciences for ETS.
For decades, ETS has provided test-taking accommodations for students with disabilities, such as extended time, a test reader, a writer to record answers and extra breaks.
ETS recently announced that it would discontinue flagging score reports of individuals with special accommodations -- such as extended time -- as "non-standard." The shift is part of a settlement of a lawsuit filed by disability groups two years ago.
ETS recently announced that it has agreed to stop flagging for the accommodation of extended time on the Graduate Record Examinations, the Graduate Management Admission Test, the Test of English as a Foreign Language, Praxis, and many other standardized admission tests that it administers as of October 1, 2001.
But even while disability advocates hailed the decision to end flagging, some say that ETS' efforts to accommodate students with disabilities still do not go far enough.
"The settlement is a big step in the right direction, but there is still more to be done," said Melanie Brunson, director of advocacy and governmental affairs for the American Council of the Blind.
The American Council of the Blind, along with the National Alliance of Blind Students, passed a joint resolution last July to investigate ETS' plans for accommodating students with visual impairments.
ETS currently provides students with disabilities with adaptive technologies such as ZoomText software, an Intellikeys keyboard, a Kensington Trackball mouse and a HeadMaster Plus mouse for computer-based tests.
But some disabled students have had difficulty obtaining tests in alternate formats such as Braille and large print. Others have had difficulties getting testing software compatible with adaptive hardware and software.
Even though ZoomText software allows students to enlarge text on screen, it doesn't have enough speech output for totally blind students to use.
Advocates say that those who aren't able to take computer-based tests can be left behind.
While, typically, an individual taking a computer-based test might require up to an hour to complete a standardized test, it can take a visually impaired person up to seven hours to take a test in Braille or large print, Shinholster said. "The amount of time it takes to take a test is a huge disadvantage," NABS Shinholster said.
What's more, while computer-based scores might reach colleges within hours, it can take up to four to six weeks for a print version to arrive.
Critics charge that ETS doesn't take advantage of technologies that are already available, such as Braille software, speech-enabled software or screen readers like Windows-Eyes and JAWS for Windows.
"The technology's out there," Shinholster said. "I don't see any reason why ETS isn't using it."
"The challenges that we face in improving the accessibility of computer-based tests are similar to those faced in information technology in general," Hansen said.
"In years past, the adaptive technologies and other tools were relatively immature, standards for developing accessible software were almost nonexistent, and content developers were not as aware of accessibility issues. Accessibility was achieved largely through retrofitting existing software with adaptive technologies," he said.
Fortunately, tools and standards have improved dramatically over the last few years. For example, the Web Content Accessibility Guidelines provide guidance about how to develop accessible websites. Screen reader technology and other tools also continue to improve.
"We need to make sure that accessibility is built into software from the ground up," said Douglas Forer, director of the Technology Research Laboratory at ETS.
"Well-authored software will be more accessible, both directly as well as indirectly, through additional adaptive technologies," Forer said. "We would like the next generation of computer-based tests to have such advantages. We have research projects that are exploring the use of screen readers, refreshable Braille displays, and built-in text-to-speech."
Ultimately, ETS wants to "make computer-based testing available to all people with disabilities who can use computers," he said.
Improved access for people with disabilities might also benefit a larger group of test-takers. So just as cuts in sidewalk curbs have benefited other pedestrians, the ability to enlarge font sizes or to have text-to-speech technology content read out loud might be extended to test takers more generally, provided it does not compromise measurement quality.
"Such an approach might have unforseen benefits to the entire population of test-takers," Forer said.
